How on earth did Augustus become the first emperor of Rome?

(or 'on the establishment of the Principate')

In 44BC, Julius Caesar was murdered on the infamous Ides of March for assuming the position of dictator. The Roman Republic was established in 509BC as the antithesis to the Roman Kingdom; no man could ever hold absolute power and thus become a tyrant - so Caesar claiming power was received with great anger by the senatorial class. In complete contrast, Gaius Octavianus, or Augustus, managed to assume even greater power under the guise of the Principate when, in reality, he had established what we know as the Roman Empire. It is generally agreed that by 23BC that the foundation of the Principate had been laid down and by the time of Augustus' death (AD14), he had instituted a form of government similar to the kingdom that existed more than 700 years prior. The question then becomes how did Augustus become the first emperor of Rome and survive when his adopted father had been assassinated for assuming similar powers. In this post, I will briefly outline the three main methods with which Augustus founded the Principate.

For one thing, the manner in which he assumed power was markedly different to the way in which Julius Caesar assumed power. The latter took the position of dictator for a period of two years; the power was only meant to be used in times of great emergency for 6 months at most. In this way, one could argue he made no attempts to hide his ambition and thus appeared to shun the Republic entirely. Contrastingly, Augustus gained power under a Republican guise, his title of ‘princeps senatus’ (given in 28BC) had been given to the leading men of the state previously. Also, he held powers that were associated with the Republic; tribuncia potestas (the power of the tribunes) was associated with the protection of the people and democratic traditions. His imperium maius was closely associated with political and military strength; thus, the powers he held were not unprecedented nor did they appear to be regal in nature. Of course, this Republican guise was not the strongest considering his multiple consulships and imperium maius but this political power was masqueraded often as personal auctoritas which persuaded others to carry out his legislation and concede to his wishes. Also, the First and Second Settlement was useful to him as he appeared to not want to control the state as he returned all of his powers. Like his political power, this was a mask to make him appear more Republican when in reality he received similar amounts of power back; the only difference is that this was given to him by the Senate – implying that he is not defying the Senate like Caesar previously did. To add to this, he refused to dictatorship when it was offered to him in 22BC, further differentiating him from his adopted father. Therefore, the power Augustus held appeared to be in accordance with Republican traditions and approved by the Senate.

Another element that led to the Principate surviving was the obedience of the senatorial class. In the case of Caesar, he was surprisingly well-liked by the people (due to his sensible reforms) but the senators were displeased by his dominance of power which led to his assassination by the optimates. In contrast, Augustus forced the senators’ hands in that they could choose either obsequiousness or obscurity; if they obeyed Augustus, they were essentially guaranteed political advancement. If they attempted to plot against him or challenge his dominance of power, they were essentially sabotaging their careers or signing their own death warrant. The censorial powers of Augustus meant that the Senate could be purged of dissenters (such as supporters of Mark Antony). Many senators were financially indebted to him as he raised the property qualification in 12BC; however, Augustus supported them if they fell short. Also, the most definitive reason for senatorial indifference was Augustus’ power militarily; his imperium maius meant the army answered to him above all others. Primarily, it is with his financial backing that the army was re-organised and veterans could be settled leading to their complete support; the establishment of the Praetorian Guard ensured his power, as they served as a personal guard for him. In contrast with Caesar’s dictatorship, the Senate did hold administrative and legislative power under Augustus – although it was an unequal power balance, they were still relevant. Thus, the acquiescence of Senate allowed Augustus to keep his power as he dominated them financially and militarily.

Lastly, a major aspect of his power came from his power with the army. Firstly, he had imperium maius which meant he could override anyone else when it came to military matters. Imperium was associated with masculine authority and also meant he could march on Rome if the Senate did not agree. The army were also essential in his initial rise to power and his foreign policy, especially with the imperial provinces. By settling the veterans with his own money, he also guaranteed their support. His re-organisation of the army was also crucial to maintaining his power; he initially scaled the size of the army down to 28 legions which made it more manageable, he then revived old forms of discipline and set up standardised conscription in order to create an army fit for a growing empire. After 17BC, no person outside of the imperial family could celebrate a triumph, implying Augustus was the ultimate imperator and no other Roman could compete. This complete dominance over the military granted him insane amounts of auctoritas and meant that the people or the Senate could not go against him.

In conclusion, Augustus was able to establish the Principate with the Republican guise he used to mask his power, his dominance over the army and the obedience of the Senate. Of course, there are many aspects that allowed him to survive and establish the Principate but those are the primary reasons that he became the first emperor of Rome while Caesar was assassinated in the process.